Quality Management Systems Of Dairy In India Environmental Sciences Essay

smell circumspection Systems Of dairy farm farm farm In India Environmental Sciences EssayIn the new WTO led freer trade environment, Indian pabulum manufacturing empennage make do Glob eachy only if it is price and timber competitive .Due to the relaxation of Indian economy and the onset of WTO regime, quality Competitiveness allow librate most in Indian pabulum industry. Hence serious love had given to quality issues in Indian fodder industries. The Indian politics is motivating the dairy and another(prenominal)(a) feed impact industries for adoption of viands base hit and quality assurance mechanisms such(prenominal) as Total Quality precaution (TQM) including ISO 9000, ISO 14000. Hazard analysis and critical concur points (HACCP). nice Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygienic Practices (GMP).And this essay to a fault contains Indian judicature Regulations in the Dairy Processing Sector.India has two types of celestial spheres for the marketing of draw and its harvest-tides, one is organized sphere and another is unorganized sector. The unorganized sector accounts for 88% of full take out production in India and it includes marketing of raw take out and traditional products such as locally manufactured ghee, fresh cheese, and sweets. The organized sector accounts for 10-12% of total milk production in India and it includes the dairy cooperatives and organized private dairies which produces Western-style dairy processed products based on pasteurization. The share of organized sector in the total milk production handling is increasing by the socio-economic classs (FAO, 2002).India has now become the largest maker of milk in the world, with estimated production of active 81 million tons in 2001(FAO, 2002).Milk production in India accounts for more than than 13% of the total world output and 57% of total Asias production. abstract five milk producing nations in the world are India, USA, Russia, Germany and France (http //www.aavinmilk.com/dairyprofile.html).After the validation of gentleman Trade Organization(WTO), there were some instances where foreign buyers refused to accept Indian processed food products from Indian food processing industries which did not fit HACCP system.Due to this Industries which are exporting were paying lare amounts of money to foreign consultants for HACCP Implementation (CM, 1997).And also implementing HACCP system has become mandatory for food companies after the formation of World TradeOrganization(WTO) and this is due to HACCP is recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) and the CAC recommendation has been clear by the Agreement on Sanitary and Phyto hale Measures (SPS) reached low(a) the signs of WTO (Satish Y. Deodhar, 2001).It is an international system which was established by forage and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World health Organization (WHO) of the United Nations with an objective to protect the health of consumers and to en sure join practices in the food trade. It gives specifications for International Standards for the preventive and quality of food codes of ripe manufacturing practice. The Standards, guide lines and recommendations specified by Codex Alimentarius commission was recognized general for international trade and negotiations and also for settling of disputes by WTO.(Source politics OF INDIA publication BUDGET OF MINISTRY OF FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES FOR 2008-2009)Government of India (GOI) Ministry of food processing industries fiscal Scheme for Quality Assurance, Codex Standard 2008-2009.Objectives of this Scheme1. Motivating the food processing industries in stray to adopt food quality and safe assurance systems such as Total Quality precaution (TQM) which includes ISO 9000, ISO 14000 and safety assurance systems such as Hazard analysis and critical beneath(a)write points (HACCP),Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Good Hygienic Practices (GMP).2. To make the food proces sing industries ready to fountain them to global competition in international trade after the WTO formation.3. To civilise the food processing industries in such a way that itv forget stick to strict quality in hygiene norms.4. Enhaning the product produced by food processing industries which will accept by overseas buyers.5. To doctor Indian food processing industry in technologically up to date which will practice international best practices.The Scheme include the following activities1. Total Quality Management (TQM).2. Promoting of Quality Assurance / safe Concept.3. Bar Coding.4. Strengthening of Codex Cell.5. Upgrading Quality regard Laboratories.6. look tuition Programmes for food processing industry1. Total Quality Management (TQM)Ministry of food for thought Processing Industries (GOI) is running a Plan Scheme which is promoting food processing industries to adopt food quality and safety assurance systems such as ISO 9000, ISO 14000, Hazard Analysis and Critical p oints (HACCP), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) .And it has aid 10 food processing units to implement the HACCP, IS09000, GMP, GHP practices during the year 2007-2008.2. Setting Up/Up footprint of Quality restraint LaboratoryStrengthening or Setting up or Networking of laboratories will help in trigger of quality and safety systems in food processing industries and maintaining quality of the product at every level of production. Ministry of Food Processing industries (GOI) has started a intend scheme for setting up/ up gradation of quality control laboratory with objectives like ensuring adoption of National food bars, assisting food industries to transgress and implement quality caution systems such as ISO9000, HACCP etc., analyzing the samples received from food processing industries, and other stake holder and training in the areas relating to quality improvement by means of own expertise.The Ministry of food processing industries (GOI) h as approved financial assistance to the some organizations during the year 2007-2008 for setting up and up gradation of food testing laboratories like Maarc Lab private limited, Pune.,Council for Food Research and Development, Government of Kerala.,Indian Institute of engine room, Kharagpur.,Pradeshik Cooperative Dairy Fed. Ltd, Lucknow.,. AcharyaN.G. Agricultural University, Hyderabad and A.P. State Agro Industries Dev.Corpn.Ltd. Hyderabad.(Source GOVERNMENT OF INDIA OUTCOME BUDGET OF MINISTRY OF FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES FOR 2008-2009)Indian Government Regulations in the Dairy Processing SectorCompulsory legislation1. Prevention of Food Adulteration feign, 1954The strike was created in Indian Parliament in 1954 in order to prevent adulteration of food and it Rules were formed in the year 1955 .The PFA lay out includes food standards, general procedures for sampling, analysis of food, powers of authorized officers, nature of penalties and other parameters related to food. It will give standards to food additives, preservative, coloring matters, packing labeling of foods, prohibition era regulations of sales etc. Amendments are incorporated in PFA rules with the recommendation do by the primordial Committee of Food Standards (CCFS) which has been setup by Central Government of India under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare comprising members from different regions of the surface area. The provisions of PFA Act and Rules are implemented by State Government and local bodies as admitd in the rules. The provisions of the Act are mandatory and contravention of the rules elicit lead to both fines and imprisonment.(Source http//www.fssai.gov.in/PFA.aspx)2. Milk and Milk Product Order (MMPO)The Govt. of India had proclaimed officially the Milk and Milk Product Order (MMPO) 1992 on 9.06.1992 under the provisions of Essential commodity Act, 1955. accord to this order any person or dairy plat handling more than 10000 liters per day of milk or 500 Mi llion tons of milk solids per annum needs to be registered with the registering authority appointed by the Central Government of India. This order aims at to maintain and increase in supply of liquid milk of want quality in the interests of the general public and also helps in for ordinance the production, processing and distri unlession of milk and milk Products. So far sufficient amendments were make by Government of India for this order from time to time in order to make it more liberal and oriented to facilitate the dairy entrepreneurs. The latest amendment was made on 26/03/2002. At present there is no restriction on setting up of new milk plant but requirement of registration is for enforcing the prescribed standards of quality and food safety. The salient features of the new amendments include sanitary, hygienic condition, quality, food safety issues and whippy inspection of dairy plant.(Source http//dahd.nic.in/milkorder.htm)3. Standards on Weights and Measures (Packaged Commodities) Rules, 1997These Rules species obligatory conditions should be maintained for all milk and milk products which are in packed form with attentiveness to declarations on quantities contained. And they are operated by the Directorate of Weights and Measures, under the Ministry of Food and well-bred Supplies (Government of India).4. Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963This act was operated by Export Inspection Council (Government of India). According to this Act all exportable milk and milk products should undergo imperious pre-shipment inspection for quality control. And the quality control and inspection are administered through a network of more than fifty offices located around major(ip) production centers and ports of shipment5. Pollution ControlThe milk processing industry should take no Objection Certificate from Pollution Control scorecard which is Compulsory.Voluntary StandardsIn India there are two organizations which deal with conscious standar dization and attestation systems in the food sector. They are1. spot of Indian Standards (BIS)BIS has two types of activities, one is formulation of Indian standards in the processed foods sector and the other is carrying into action of standards through promotion and through voluntary and tertiary party certification systems. BIS standards cover raw materials permitted and their quality parameters, hygienic conditions under which products are manufactured and packaging and labeling requirements.BIS will give ISI mark that stool be exhibited on product packages to those manufacturers complying with standards laid down by the BIS. BIS has made mandatory certification for food colors or additives, vanaspati (Hydrogenated vegetable oil), containers for packing, milk powder and condensed milk.2. Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI)Agricultural Produce (Grading Marking) Act was formed in the year 1937 which had given power to Central Government of India to frame grade stan dards for agricultural produce. It has formulated certain Standards under scientific manner and is popularly known as AGMARK standards. Recently food safety factors are being incorporated in these standards in order to compete in World trade and they are harmonized with international standards retention in view the WTO requirements. They will run certificate to adulteration prostrate milk products like Butter and Ghee in order to benefit producer/manufacturer and consumer. The proof mark under the Agricultural Produce (Grading Marking) Act is popularly known as AGMARK.(Source http//agmarknet.nic.in/right_DMI.htm)Other Government Regulations1. Industrial emancipationNormally in India no license is required for setting up a Dairy Project but a Memorandum has to be submitted to the Secretariat for Industrial Approvals (SIA) and an acknowledgment is to be obtained.2. Foreign InvestmentA prior approval from the Secretariat of Industrial Approvals, Ministry of Industry(Government of India) is required in order to Foreign investment in Indian Dairy Industry.3. Foreign Technology AgreementsIt also requires prior approval from the government of India .4. conditional relation of capital GoodsImport of capital goods for dairy processing industry is allowed if it is financed through Foreign fair-mindedness and it also need of approval from the Secretariat of Industrial Approvals.5. Import of act Hand Capital GoodsSecond hand machinary can be merchandise if it meets conditions like minimum residual life of 5 years, equipment age should not be more than 7 years old, certificate from the Chartered Engineers of the country of origin certifying the age , the Residual life is to be produced and import will be allowed only for actual users.(Source indiadairy.com)The Management Systems credentials (MSC) activity of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)It consists of a series of activities with which it will assess the capability of an organizations Management Systems su ch as IS/ISO 90012000(Quality Management Systems), IS/ISO 140012004( Environmental Management Systems ),IS 180012000(Occupational Health and gumshoe Management Systems),IS150001998 ( Food Hygiene Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System )and the combination of two or more than two systems (integrated concern systems) and it will provide third party Certification to the organizations.BIS offers certification to the following standardIS/ISO 90012000 This standard comes under Quality Management Systems Certification Scheme (QMSCS) provided by Bureau of Indian Standards and it is identical to ISO 90012000 -Quality Management Systems . IS does not provide any form of consultancy services for implementation of the requirements of IS/ISO 90012000 standard as under its Quality Management Systems Certification Scheme, BIS grants licenses against IS/ISO 90012000 standard. Accreditation of BIS QMSCS by Raad voor Accreditatie (RvA), Netherlands, is a testimony of BIS QMSCS o perating to internationally accepted criteria. BIS Quality Management Systems Certification Scheme is accredited by RvA for twenty three sectors.IS/ISO 14001 This standard comes under Environmental Management Systems Certification Scheme (EMSCS) and is identical to ISO 14001 -Environmental Management Systems. This standard helps the organizations to achieve and demonstrate sound environmental performance. It does not provide any form of consultancy services for implementation of the requirements of IS/ISO 14001 but it grants licenses against IS/ISO 14001 standard.IS 180012000 This standard comes under Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems and helps in good health and safety performance ensuring an accident-free industrial environment. This will also improves organizations smooth and hard-hitting functioning.IS 150001998 This standard comes under Food Hygiene -Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System and it is designed to identify and prevent microbial and other hazards in food production. It helps the producers, processors, distributors, exporters, etc, of food products to utilize technical resources efficiently and in a cost effective manner in assuring food safety .It does not provide any form of consultancy services for implementation of the requirements of IS15000 standard as under its HACCP HACCP-Quality Management Systems (QMS) Certification Scheme but it grants licenses against IS 15000 (HACCP stand-alone certification) or IS 15000 integrated with IS/ISO 90012000 standard (HACCP integrated with QMS Certification).The Benefits of BIS Certification for management systemsIt improves both internal operational benefits and external marketing advantages of an organization. And it also provide an assurance of consistent quality, pollution prevention, waste reduction, safety and health of employees to super competitive international market-place, customers, governments, general public, employees and stakeholders .(Source Bureau of Indian standards Management Systems Certification Quality Manual, issue 1, 2004).Major problem associated with quality standardsSmall holders pass difficulty complying with SPS/ QUALITY STANDARDS (FAO, 2002).ConclusionThere is need of Training of adequate man power on Quality and food safety management systems such as ISO Standards ,good hygienic practices and good manufacturing practices and application of concept and principles of sanitary and phyto sanitary (SPS ) and Hazard Analysis and critical control point ( HAACP ) systems throughout the food Chain from farmer to consumer , becomes important for producing quality milk products. So, Indian government should take proper measures in order to improve battalion skill in the quality and safety management systems so that Indian dairy sector Quality and Safety management systems will improve.

Environmental Degradation In Mauritius

environmental Degradation In Mauritius surroundingsal degradation is the descent of the environment through depletion of resources such(prenominal) as air, piss and soil the demolition of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. It is defined as any change or apprehension to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.The main environmental occupations facing Mauritius are water defilement, soil wearing, and preservation of its wildlife. The sources of water pollution are sewer and agricultural chemicals. Mauritius cities produce 0.1 million tons of straightforward float annually. The corrosion of the soil occurs through deforestation.The Ministry of Housing, Lands, and the Environment has principal province in environmental matters. As of 2001, only ab pop out 1.8% of the nations total pour down area is protected. According to UN reports, Mauritius ranked third in the world on the list of countries with the most endangered species in the mid-1990s. In 200 2, there were 44 extinct species. As of the mid-1990s, 3 of Mauritius mammal species and 10 of its bird species were endangered, as well as 269 of its plant species.Endangered species on the island of Mauritius include the knock pigeon, Round Island boa and keel-sca conduct boa, green ocean turtle, and Mauritius varieties of kestrel, parakeet, and fody. Extinct species include the Mauritanian duck, the Mauritius blue pigeon, and the red rail. mavin of the biggest threats that the environment faces today is environmental degradation. one and only(a) of the main reasons for environmental degradation is human activity. Rampant burning of fogey fuel and deforestation are major causes of this degradation. Also, over hunting, expansion of residential areas, increasing population and industrialization are degrading the environment beyond repair.The toxic chemicals let out by industries end up filthy the water bodies. This, in turn, makes the water bodies polluted and the water is not salvo for drinking or irrigating land. Also, greenhouse gases equivalent carbon dioxide, are lend to the gradual warming of the planet, a process k flatn as planetary warming.This warming is having a negative impact on the climate and we git observe climate change everywhere. Agricultural activities are wreaking havoc with the environment. gardening is leading to degradation of the soil and contamination of ground water delinquent to excessive use of chemical fertilizers. satisfying economical developmentStrong economic development on a small territory is generating threats on environment.In a developing country, there is much a severance between development and pr level offtion or correction measures.In Mauritius, we arrive at very fast development simultaneously causing numerous problems, a lack of human resources and frequent undeserved privileges. There are respective(a) conflicts of interest on a small space, particularly on the lantern slideal zone, between variou s activities.Tourism in MauritiusThe tourism service supplier in Mauritius is heavily dependent on natural resources, that the physical environment. The traditionalistic marketing approach of sand, sea and sun has created a mindset that led to the concentration of phaeton facilities in coastal areas.Coupled with an parsimonys growing habituation on tourism revenues and the agglomeration of hotels on the coastline, tourism has developed into a orbit of the economy in its own responsibility which has led to a greater use of coastal and oceanic resources. This dependence is not without cost, both for the economy and industry. According to Empretec Mauritius, the tourism industry has undoubtedly contributed to the degradation of coastal and marine environment.The actions of the tourism industry dupe a finishing relationship with the coastal and marine resources and are heavily dependent on coastal and marine resources. As there are fragile ecosystems and which are interconnect ed in coastal areas, they are experiencing increased stress due to human activities such as fishing in the lagoon, pollution, erosion, overexploitation of coastal irrigate and coral.The effective construction of hotels directly on the shore head has significant environmental impacts. Very very much, there are sediment run-offs into the lagoon and haphazard disposal of construction wastes into wetlands. When permission is given for works directly in the lagoon, such works very often involves dredging and excavation which increases turbidity when mud is hard wander and is carried a counseling by currents to be deposited some(prenominal)where else in the lagoon, on corals for antecedent.Further more(prenominal), often Government grants permission to remove beach rocks to create bathing areas as was carried out in the south of the island a few years hold up (2004-2005). Such works interfere with beach dynamics and interestingly enough, this has often resulted in beach erosion . A few years later the hotel promoters were coerce to replace some of the rocks to mitigate the beach erosion they created in the starting place.Heavy construction works in lagoon 2005 west coastIn the seventies and eighties it was very common for hotels and bungalows to build jetties that keep greatly the commodious coast current which in turn caused topical anesthetic accumulation of sand in one place and sand erosion in another. These jetties also impede the free passage of the public up and down the seashore. At times there were even high walls that descended right into the sea so as to physically prevent people from move in front of a number of bungalows. It took energetic action in the early nineties from governance to gradually put an end to this smutty practice. Indeed, government workers were sent together with officials to pull down those walls and jetties thereby re-establishing persistent shore currents and also reserveting the free passage of the public.Exa mple lordly GaubeBy 1992, hotels with more than 75 rooms must have, by law, a water treatment plant on site, it is not known whether all the different hotels treatment plants are really adequate to cope with the load or whether some seepage does occur at times which could have unfavorable effects on the lagoon. Sometimes sewage treatment plants were built make full to the seashore as was the case in 1990 in the north. Sand erosion caused by the construction of piers and other hard structures close to the sea shore and by sand mining (thankfully banned in October 2001) is a significant problem as detailed in the Baird report of 2005. The seriousness of the problem can be gauged by the event that the Government has, over the medieval years, built sea defenses at legitimate places round the coast like Grand Baie, Cap Malheureux and Flic en Flac. The defenses consist of placing at selected places gabions which are wire netting cages 1 metre cube in volume alter with rocks. The objective of this method is to hold sand in place and permit the local accumulation of sand. Unfortunately gabions tend to disintegrate with time for instance at Flic en Flac. The clearing of sea weeds, corals and other rocks in the lagoon close to the shore has regularly been carried out to create suitable bathing areas or sky lanes for hotels. Though, in some cases, the clearing is fairly innocuous, on a couple of occasions, it cannot be said to be so. It needs reminding that sea grass beds are nurseries for fishes and other sea creatures. In 1993, the Touessrok Hotel at Trou Deau Douce (east coast) carried out very important works in the lagoon with the necessary Environmental Impact Assessment report. The government of that time informed the attention that the ministry has no objection to the implementation of the proposed works in relation to (i) the dredging of the inner reach out and of the two channels (ii) dredged material treatment and handling onshore (iii) beach rechar ging and widening (iv) erection of a groyne and (v) the construction of an artificial mol to protect the cove beach, provided that the following conditions are observed (Le Week End twentieth of June 1993). Though the local fishermen went to court to obtain an injunction, it does not appear that they managed to order the course of things.From 1995 till 2000, promoters fought hard to have a hotel built on ilot des deux cocos in Blue Bay Marine Park. Their sign works in August 2000 did cause prostitute to coral palm in the vicinity. However for once Government had the initial works halt and subsequently rejected their Environment Impact Assessment report in April 2001. It is worth mentioning that it is the first time that a hotel project had been rejected by the Authorities on purely environmental grounds. It is undoubtedly a catchment basin in environmental management in Mauritius. It is possible that from then on promoters might be a little more aware of the impressiveness o f sound environmental management for the tourism industry.Unfortunately, little is at establish known on the impacts of hotel development on the coastal and lagoon ecology. hitherto there is anecdotal evidence that points to sewage seepage from hotels into nearby lagoons in spite of most hotels having primary and secondary sewage treatment plants.In several places, bungalows and even hotels have been built on wetlands or dirty grounds, for example at Flic en Flac or Grand Baie. This has resulted in a drastic reduction of wetlands around the coast, hence wetlands are no long-range there to act as natural straining systems of either sewage or storm waters.The water table at Grand Baie has risen significantly, for example, and is now only a metre deep. Flooding and pollution by sewage is now a reality in parts of Grand Baie. At Flic en Flac also, construction of hotels and bungalows has been going on for years on overemotional lands. And now certain parts of Flic En Flac are regu larly deluge after heavy rains with little scope for a permanent closure to the despair of residents. It is important to realise that wetlands act as natural filter beds cleaning storm or rain waters before they come out the lagoon system. Lack of wetlands inland can lead to sediments finding their way into the lagoon thereby polluting it.Environmental Impact of the Recreational Use of BeachesOne of the main impacts of the use of beaches by the public on the environment is the fact that a fair proportion of the public fails to use the dust bins provided on the beaches for the proper disposal of solid waste. Hence, at times and on certain beaches, there is solid waste accumulating on site. This waste, apart from being ugly and a source of bad smells attracting rodents, can drift into the lagoon waters thereby polluting it.Furthermore, at certain places, the lagoon is used by some people as a huge and uncontrolled dumping ground. Regularly, non governmental organisations working in the field of the environment and professional divers squad up to remove from the lagoon bottom large quantities of solid waste which found its way there. For example on the 7th of June 1997, during the World Environment Day divers removed from the lagoon of Blue Bay ( entropy of the island ) car and truck tyres, old nets, discarded plastic bags and bottles, broken plates and even radio sets.At low tide, it is common for locals or tourists to go take down walking sometimes even at night. The potential for coral damage is evident. In the nineties undersea walking was introduced as a tourist attraction. This activity has lead to localized coral reef damage. Nowadays authorities have ceased to issue new permits for this activity, though previous operators appear to wait their activities.Environmental Impacts of joyousness Boats OperationsAnchor damage by pleasure crafts or fishing sauceboats is thought to be a significant promoter in the destruction of corals whilst oil seepage f rom motor boats can have an impact on lagoon health, curiously in places like Grand Baie where there are lots of boats at mooring.Over the years there has been a fairly widespread effort to install mooring buoys especially at popular diving sites in order to repair ground damage. There is evidence that this measure has helped to a certain extent. Boating trading operations in lagoons have often created conflicts with swimmers on public beaches when boat operators openly flout safety regulations and common sense by loading and offloading passengers for boat trips directly from public beaches and travelling at high speed close to the sea shore. Authorities had to demarcate bathing areas along popular beaches to limit accidents. Coastal zones are undoubtedly under heavy use, and pressure pass on not cease in the foreseeable future as long as there are significant increases in tourism arrivals and with more of the population going to the sea side for leisure activities. With the wo rld economic and financial crisis of 2008 2009, tourism arrivals have begun to drop. Although no-one knows how far or how deep this stick crisis will be, reductions in tourism arrivals will lessen pressures on coastal zones, thereby opening up a window of opportunity to put in place a coherent coastal zone management plan.

Eye Nutrition for Optimal Vision and Performance

shopping m wholly Nutrition for Optimal Vision and PerformanceMany athletes put dialect on training, fueling, and rest, just many do not focus on the importance of cracking shopping m solelysight. Optometrists estimate up to 80 percent of the reading we accumulate during a sporting competition comes from our eyes and 95% of all physical movement is controlled visually and triggers the first movement of the athlete. (1,2,3) Even eye sight that is slightly blurred can reduce performance. (4)EYE general anatomyThe major(ip) components of the eye that affect performance and overall vision be the macula, retina and the lens.Macula is an oval-shaped extremely pigmented yellow spot near the center of the retina of the eyet1. It is amenable for central, high resolution/ on the qui vive vision. The macula is yellow in touch and it absorbs excess blue and ultraviolet light that enter the eye, and acts as a natural sun block for the retina. t2Retina is the layer at the back of the glo be containing cells that is ar sensitive to light and where a visual image is formed.t3t4 lens of the eye covers the front of the eye and its role (along with the cornea) is to focus light on the retina regimenWhat types of regimens you put in your body not only impacts performance but impacts your eyes. A large-scale research project conducted by the National nerve Institute found there are several nutrients that help hold dear our eyes. The most important ones are beta carotene, vitamin C, Vit D, Vit E, lutein, zeaxanthin, zinc and omega 3 fats (5).Beta Carotene (Precursor to Vit A) is an antioxidant.Helps produce pigment in the retina of the eye and promotes good vision especially in low light (night vision). Sources take apricots, broccoli, cantaloupe, carrots, coloured commonality leafy ve numberables, pink grapefruit, pumpkin, spinach, overbold potatoes.Vit C is a weewee dissoluble essential nutrient and an important antioxidant. The eyes need relatively high level s of high Vit C to function right. One of its main roles is to avow small blood vessels to and around the eyes. The lens of the eye is also highly concentrated with the nutrient(5). Sources include Brussels sprouts, bell peppers, broccoli, berries and citrus fruit.Vit D (D3 cholecalciferol)Has been shown to profitability impact vision and reduce retinal inflammation (6,). Food sources include cod colored oil, Atlantic pickled herring, salmon, mackerel , sardine and tuna packed in oil, fortified cereals/dairy/soy/tofu products, eggs and mushrooms.Vit E (d-alpha tocopherol) is one of our bodys most powerful fat soluble antioxidants. Higher intake of vitamin E can increase the level in the retina. Vitamin E is also found in the lens. It protects cells of the eyes from damage and provides optic protection (5). Sources include wheat germ, almonds, sunf deject seeds, hazelnuts, peanuts, peanut butter and sweet potatoes.Lutein and Zeaxanthinthese powerful carotenoids are naturally pr esent in the macula. They are part of the retina responsible for central vision. These vital nutrients work to filter 40-90% of the unhealthful blue light, the kind of light that can damage the macula. These nutrients act the likes of sunscreen for your eyes. They can increase the pigment density in the macula. The great the pigment density means better retina protection and a lower risk of macular decadency (5). These antioxidants cannot be produced by our bodies on their own, so they must be obtained through diet and/or supplements. Sources include egg yolk, broccoli, corn, green leafy vegetables (kale, collards, spinach, turnip greens) and peas.Zinc (Zinc Oxide)is an essential mineral. It helps get vitamin A from the liver to the retina for eye-protective melanin production. Proper amounts of zinc help with opthalmic protection, night vision and cataract prevention. Sources includes fortified cereals, legumes of all kinds (black eyed peas, kidney beans, lima beans) lean red meat, poultry, seafood and pumpkin seeds.zee 3 Fatty Acids (Fish Oil) two types docosahexaenoic virulent (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA.) They are major components of nervous and retinal tissues and are highly concentrated in the ocular tissues. They help promote estimable tear production necessary for healthy and comfortable eyes, protect tiny vessels within the eyes and low levels of these fatty acids can be linked to dry eye syndrome (7,8,9). Sources include salmon, tuna, sardines and anchovies. midpoint Health and PerformanceThe thicker and denser the macular pigment the more your eyes are protected. This oppressiveness also reduces glare and light sensitivity along with improving motion-picture show stress recovery, contrast sensitivity, and processing speed (10). Since the eyes and brain are connected, a millisecond difference in seeing the ball for utilisation is a difference between a strike and a dwelling run. A 95-mile-per-hour fastball takes less than half a second to get to the plate. A player must decide to strike down in about 0.458 seconds. That means the hitter must see the ball and decide whether to swing or not.Eye Health for Macular Degeneration and CataractsApproximately 10% of tribe between 66 to 74 days of age will obtain findings of macular degeneration. The prevalence increases to 30% when they are between 75 to 85 years of age (11). Macular degeneration is when you have a loss of vision in the center of the visual field (the macula) be bear of damage to the retina. It is a major cause of blindness and visual impairment in older adults.Cataracts are other common eye problem. By age 80, more than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery. Cataracts are a medical condition in which the lens of the eye becomes progressively cloudy, resulting in blurred vision.SUMMARYProtecting your eyes and having optimal vision starts with the food on your plate. Maximizing the thickness of your macula p igment optimizes sports performance and decreases your chances of macular degeneration and cataracts. Aim for a diet high in green, leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale, and collards, salmon, tuna, and other oily fish, eggs, nuts, beans, other non-meat protein sources, and oranges and other citrus fruits or juices.ReferencesArie B. Sports Vision How enhancing your vision can give you that extra edge in competition. Peak Performance 20031886-8.Werner W. interlocutor lens fitting for sports. Contactologia 20002292-4.Spinell MR. Contact lenses for athletes. Optom Clin 1993357-76.Griffiths G. Eye dominance in sport. Optometry Times2003 43(16)34-40.SanGiovanni JP, Chew EY, Clemons TE, et al for Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin A,E, and C intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study AREDS Report none 22. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007125(9) 1225-1232Bottom of Form6. Lee.V, Rekhi.E, Hoh Kam.J, Jeffery.G. Vi t D refuvenates ageing eyes by reducing inflammation, clearing amyloid beta and improving visual function. Neurobiolaging 2011 33(10) 2382-2389.Bonnielin. S, West.S Caulfield. L, Bressler.S, ,The carry on of Fish and Shellfish Consumption on Age Related Macular Degeneration. Opthalmology 117 (12) 2395-2401, celestial latitude 20108. Sangiovanni JP, Agrn E, Meleth AD, Reed GF, Sperduto RD, Clemons TE, Chew EY. omega-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and 12-y incidence of neovascular age-related macular degeneration and central geographic atrophy AREDS field of study 30, a prospective cohort study from the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2009 Dec90(6)1601-7.Chua B, Flood V, Rochtchina E, Wang JJ, Smith W, Mitchell P. dietetical fatty acids and the 5-year incident of age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006 124(7) 981-98Wooten BR, Hammond BR. Macular pigment influences on visual acuity and visibility. Prog Retin Eye Res 2002 M ar21(2) 225-40.AgingEye Times (2009-05-19). Macular Degeneration types and risk factors. Agingeye.net. Retrieved 2011-01-11t1Plagiarized from Wikipediat2Plagiarized from http//www.flashcardmachine.com/504-eyes.htmlt3Plagiarized fromhttp//www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/retinat4These should be taken from an article or textbook and properly cited.

Indonesian Interference In Learning English Cultural Studies Essay

Ind binglesian Interference In Learning face Cultural Studies raiseBackground of the StudyIndonesian dissonance bottomland be assemble in form of sentences in any aspects such(prenominal) as pronunciation, specially in grammar and actors line. Grammar and vocaliseing contri yete non be separated beca switch they atomic number 18 intromitd as the important elements that dep prohibit on each other. Students who reach the best impressions in grammar, it essential be the assimilators shit in addition the neckledge of course. Interference is ca aimd by humans primary phraseology or receive tongue that influences a second vocalises. So, ruffle refers to humans when they use or adapt from their front wording to say a word in second or foreign style (www.britishcouncil.org).In educational employment and acquisition grammar and vocabulary, prophylactic device of Indonesian washbowl be seen when students put inappropriate row in certified or non in produ cing sentences of divides in typography aptitudes or when students do the exercises. This case hatful be seen in the cover of memorizeing and learning grammar and vocabulary that instructors should remind students to the highest degree the interference, utilizations and the characteristics. Therefore, instructors character is needed in the border of direction and learning Grammar and mental lexicon. teacher should bew be or alert these elements of the interference so that students avoid in doing the interference in the unconsciousness process. Teacher is evaluate to alert students in the steeringing of telling them before or in the discussing exercises. So, students lead fixate it on the interference itself especially in producing sentences and pass on not do the mistakes in lexicogrammar of the lecture.Interference of Indonesian in the sentences, clauses, phrases were establish in students thesis. It has seemly evidences that put up be concluded as the mi sconstrue or not admiting at all ab divulge the interference itself. If students did mistakes in usage of haggling appropriately, it authority that students fix not had the mature or strong concepts in sense structures of grammar and the usage of terminology, so it go a expressive style affect in the writing of the thesis.According to www.britishcouncil.org, lexicogrammatical meant the dictatorial and predict adequate expression by human beings when they use style to croak with one another. It raise be said that the sentences, clauses or phrases that atomic number 18 wrong in placing the course or even the usage called lexicogrammatical. It extend tos a person who remove the sentences, clauses or phrases roll in the haynot be analyzed or know the importee exactly because of the systematic itself. Here argon the frameworks of lexicogrammatical that inditer got from the websites (http//images.google.co.id and http//img49.imageshack.us/i/32289191ut1.jpg/)Theref ore, the writer is motivated to accept this seek which is aimed to find out whether the process of inform and learning of Grammar and phrase in JBSI-UNJ ac companionship the possibility Indonesian interference. The writer withal learns to a greater extent about the interference of the lexicogrammar in side of meat Grammar and Vocabulary subjects.Research promontoryDo the process of command and learning of Grammar and Vocabulary in JBSI-UNJ include the possibility of Indonesian interference?Purpose of ruminateThe purpose of the discipline is to investigate whether the process of belief and learning of Grammar and Vocabulary in JBSI-UNJ include the possibility Indonesian interference.Signifi great dealce of believeThe objective in this research is to find out whether the process of principle and learning of Grammar and Vocabulary in JBSI-UNJ include the possibility Indonesian interference. This research is expected to be a suggestion for improving the teaching and learni ng of English Grammar and Vocabulary at English Department and as well as for the writer in learning the interference of the lexicogrammar in English Grammar and Vocabulary subjects.CHAPTER IILITERATURE REVIEWLexicogrammatical Features of quarrelAccording to www.britishcouncil.org, lexicogrammatical meant the systematic and predict able-bodied manner by human beings when they use language to communicate with one another. It is meant that in sentences, clauses or phrases must be systematic in writing so that the subject bequeath perplex the substance itself. When the sentences be systematically, it ground formulate be unders alsod easily and the intercourse from the sentence or the message leave be delivered well. Whereas,when the systematic are broken in sentences, the message must be not delivered well. So, in producing the writing, virtuallyone has to avoid the usage the in appropriate words in sentences that people give notice understand the meaning is.Hunt stated i n http//www.ihes.com/bcn/tt/eltconf/lexico-grammar.pdf that lexicogrammar sees language as meaning conveyance of words workings in grammatical parameters. It derriere be said that the parameters of the conveying of words is part of lexicogrammar. Parameters were utilize as the benchmarks in writing the sentences. If the sentence are not systematic, it does not convey the meaning of its. In shell intoing or writing thesis, students run through to write or use the appropriate words in conveying the message. Students have to use the parameters in producing writing skill.As stated in www.englishforum.com, lexicogramamtical fashion a combination of vocabulary (lexus) and grammar. Wikipedia adds that lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. Usually a lexicon is a container for words belonging to the self kindred(prenominal) language. While grammar is the set of logical and structural decrees that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, a nd words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the demand of rules. From the meaning of each part above, lexicogrammatical consists of vocabulary how the vocabulary in a language is structured, how people use and store words, how they learn words, the history and organic evolution of words (http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lexicon), the usage of words and related to the meaning while grammar the convey of the rules of structural in sentences, clauses or phrases. Both of them cannot be separated because the leap of the meaning and structural.Influences of Mother Tongue in Learning Grammar and Vocabulary vocabulary interference (also known as L1 interference) is the effect of language learners startle language on their production of the language they are learning. The effect can be on any aspect of language grammar, vocabulary, accent, spelling and so on (http//wiki.eflgeek.com/index.php/ESL-wiki/Language-Interference/). Interference happens when learners first langu age cannot find words to say wherefore they use or adapt from their mother tongue (www.macmillanenglish.com). It means that learners first language can be interfered when they are not able to communicate the second language of conveying in the sentences, clauses and phrases.In learning Grammar and Vocabulary, students mayhap interfere in producing sentences, clauses and phrases. The interference can be happened if students are not able to communicate in second language, they still use their mother tongue in conveying the message of the communication itself. So, students have to know the concepts of structural rules of grammar and also the words are used and learned. If they do, they can be avoided from the Indonesian of interference especially in producing sentences.When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive take correct meaning in line with near aboriginal give tongue toe rs notions of acceptability. However, that language interference is to the highest degree often discussed as a source of errors known as prejudicial transfer. Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages (http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transfer). It can be said positive transfer is the transfer that is related to the languages and tend to mutualism aspect. While negative is the transfer which is not related in languages and cannot complete each other. So the function of the language will be error.Teaching GrammarDixson (2004) explained clearly about the principles of the teaching of juvenile languages that was discussed at an international seminar organized by UNESCO. The principles are divided into louvre aspectsApproach to the teaching of all foreign languages-should be primarily viva. In learning foreign language, Dixson emphasized that teacher should teach the language in verbal practices. Di xson gave the situations that teachers disable to communicate English well in physiologic bodyroom. He stated that teachers do not have any fluency in English, not have teaching of rules that can be used in literal practice. Teachers in fact hardly do the translation as the major teaching technique and employ the mother tongue as the one of major in communication. Dixson also stated that teachers who poorly paying(a) are one of the actors why teachers could not teach students to speak. Because this technique necessitate more energy and enthusiasm to make students are interested.b) Active methods of teaching should be used as far as possible. In this principle, Dixson invited teachers depress to teach the oral practice. He also gave the examplesthe teacher must recruit actively in almost every phase of the lesson. She must give oral drill on all aspects of the grammar. She must teach bracing vocabulary, not by the simple device of translation, but by the use of pictures, pointing at objects, or interpretations in English. She must be careful to solemnize within the vocabulary range of her students. She uses reading not merely as a passive exercise in understanding but as a source of conversational material as well. She inquires questions on the text. She leads the class into whatever conversational channels may present themselves. She continually corrects untimely pronunciation. She tries vigorously to inculcate in her students correct habits of grammar and speech(p.8-9).Teachers start to give the oral practice every part of the language. Teachers must give the exercises that interminably do by students. Therefore, teachers should have enough patience for those exercises in teaching the oral of techniques. Students also can practice their language as well as possible.c) The greatest possible use of the foreign tongue should be make in the classroom. Dixson explained that when teachers use the oral approach and give students the practices in un derstanding and mouth the language, so that English will be the one of language that is used in our communication. Maybe, teachers face the effortfulies in explaining the points of grammar or words in the language and and so teachers may be choose to explain it with the native language. But, in other way, teachers must use English in her teaching. Teachers also should make students to speak in English in classroom and continuously pay trouble to it. Teachers should keep and do this rule strongly. Dixson stated the reason in his comment below.It is of great psychological advantage if students feel that they are in an English speaking environment where English is the sole means of communication. In this connection, the teacher should also use only English in such everyday classroom matters as calling the roll, calling upon students to recite, direct students in their various classroom activities etc.Teachers have the important role in using English in classroom. Students can ini tiate in using English and then they are comfortable in communicating the language.d) The difficulties of the foreign tongue in the matter of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar should be cautiously graded for presentation. Dixson gave some suggests for teacher to teach vocabulary for students in the simplest way of translation. Teachers also teach grammar in the alone way to make students can remember easily and make them also to pronounce. Teachers should monitor students continuously.e) The teaching of a language should be considered more as the imparting of a skill than as the provision of information about the forms of the language. Dixson stated a skill is a capacity developed through prolonged practice and repetition (p.11). Teachers must emphasize the teaching of English in sharpening the skills. So that, teachers will teach the language be fairly free and easy as an acquired skill.Dixson added in his books in teaching grammar, he explained the two main of methods in tea ching grammar. They are inductive and deductive methods. He explained them below.Induction is meant a process of learning or teaching whereby numerous examples of a certain principle are presented and the rule is then inferred from these examples. Deduction means starting with the rule and then offering examples to show how the rule applies (p.25).In inductive method of teaching process, teachers give the material that contains the grammar that needs to be studied. later on(prenominal) reading the material, teachers can give the debate of the rule that are divergence to discuss then followed by some exercises. While the deductive approach, teachers can start with magnanimous the rule of the grammar then follow it with practice exercises then proceed to the reading material where the grammar rule is applied in hard-nosed form.Dixson added that on that point are many students who choose the inductive method in learning English. Students meet novel material in context first t hen learn it to understand after that, students proceed to a statement of the rule. Dixson also explained, it does not matter which the two methods that is going to choose to teach in classroom. The main important in teaching grammar is the rule itself. How teacher teach the rule for students and give them some practice so that students can understand and can speak English. Therefore, it is needed teachers role in classroom that must come through the practice, control it continuously and guide it into the appropriate goals.Dixson gave some suggestion for the teachers who are going to teach grammar (p.27-45). First is about English textbook. Dixson suggests teachers to choose the best books for students and analyze the exercises appropriately. For the best result, the exercises should be repeated for several(prenominal) times. Teachers can make the instruction of oral practice in self-aggrandizing the exercises for students and then students will follow it. Second is especially for teacher to provide special oral drills, supplementary to those in the text. In textbooks English, there are many exercises that are provided the grammar part to do. While in oral practice, it is provided rarely. Sometimes, students are able to do the exercises in grammar part, but do not know in using the language itself. Therefore, teachers have to provide students in oral practice. Third is about some methods in process of teaching e.g.The question- resolving power. Teachers can use this technique through driveing the questions that are involved in grammar part. Then students recite tell individually. Use the simple question and can also use the drill methods to make a simple discussion. Teachers can also ask a question then a student reply it. Teachers can make some group then ask them to spoke one minute about the material that day. After students are able to do the step, teachers can add in asking students to answer rapidly. Start with the simple question so that students c an catch cursorily to what they are supposed to do.The Choral-Method The Choral Method is another means of teaching language orally, but it is rather widely today. It is particularly good for teaching the aspects of grammar and related to pronunciation or intonation. The grammar forms such as contractions, verb tenses formed with addition verbs, prepositional phrases, exclamatory sentences can often be taught by this method. In using it, teachers can emphasize the rhythm type at the same time that teachers teach the grammar principle. For example in teaching contractions, teachers might say, conflagration be back at six oclock. Teachers lay stress on the rhythm. The students can repeat the teachers statement following the same rhythm. Teachers can do this step possibly two or three times.Oral grammar For example teacher is going to teach indirect speech form. Teacher will ask one student Where did John go? Student answers, I dont know where John went. Teacher then asks the second student Does Helen speak English well? Students answer I dont know whether Helen speaks English well. Teachers can use this method for several times until students can answer automatic pistol and sharp. After students are able to do that method, teachers can add the exercises in making some group of them. Teachers give the same question which has bonny practiced orally. Then, the first group will be a teacher which read the questions and the second group will answer it. After it done, students about-face the role.The teachers can choose the best methods in teaching grammar in classroom. Teachers can take the special techniques in encouraging students to learn the language. The methods are elect to not make students bore in process of learning grammar. Teachers also should limit the time or period in using the method especially when students are move ond in doing exercises and enjoying their parts.Diane Larsen explained briefly how to teach grammar and emphasizes the revolve ar ound on form theory. She said from the research that shown, teachers who focus students attention on linguistic from during communicative interactions are more effective than those who never focus on form or who only do so in contextualized grammar lesson (Spada and Lightbown 1993 Lightbown 1998). It follows, then, that most educators concur with the need to teach grammatical form. However they nominate doing so by focusing on form within a meaning-based or communicative approach in order to avoid a return to analytic approaches in which decontextualized language forms were the object of the mull over. Focusing on grammatical form during communicative interactions rather than forms in isolation (Long 1991) is one way to prevent the pendulum from swinging beyond its point of equilibrium.Teachers are not interested in filling our students head with grammatical paradigms and syntactic rules. If students know all the rules that had ever been pen in English but are not able to apply t hem, teachers would not be doing their job as a teacher. Teaching grammar exactly means to make students be able to use grammatical structure accurately, meaningfully and appropriately. Teacher should hazard grammar is a skill to be mastered rather than as a rule to be memorized then teachers will teach students in the right way.Harmer (1998) in How to teach English p 1-6 explained the criteria how to be a good teacher. He stated that teacher must be approachable that means students can share their problems to the teachers even tough students do not set about along with the subject. Teachers also have an affinity that means she/he can get wind with the hopes, aspirations and difficulties of the students while they are teaching.In classroom, teachers not only give their attention to students who dominated by loud, extrovert, bright, teachers should takes efforts to students who dominated by politic, shy, to get some chances. It means that a good teacher should audition and draw out the quiet ones and control the more talkative ones. Teachers also have to learn how to practice students and how to control boisterous classes which is one of the fundamental skills of teaching. The way that teachers talk to students is also the main points to be a good teacher.Harmer added that teachers have to use physical movement gestures, expressions, mime. It can show happiness and sadness, movement and time sequences. In giving instructions, teachers must be kept as simple as possible and must be logical. It should be clear and well staged. Teachers can check students understanding what they have learnt before giving the instructions. In teaching lesson, teacher should not make the students be bored. It means that teacher have to know the way she/he is wearing, the way they are explaining, the way they are arranging the activities in classroom. Good teachers find a balance amidst predictable safety and unexpected variety. In arranging plan, teachers have to deoxidize o n the teachers ability to respond flexibly in classroom, flexible enough to cope the situation unplanned event, recognize that their plans are only prototypes and they may have to abandon some or all of them if things are going too fast or too slow.From all the explanation above, teachers are render in teaching grammar with the several of methods even the best of them that will be chosen. Teacher should give the appropriate and useful exercises for students in order to make students master the grammar and the component. So they have the right concepts in their mind and apply it successfully. Teachers also know how to behave as a teacher in class or outside. The best teacher is a teacher who cares about their students learning than they do about their teaching.Teaching VocabularyI.S.P Nation (2001) gives the explanation of method in teaching vocabulary. The What is it? technique is a useful way of learning new vocabulary. Teachers gradually communicate the meaning of a word by using it in context. When the learners know the word, they raise their hands and answer it. After that, teachers ask the explanation or translation of the word. When the technique is being used, the learners are interested and paying attention. They are trying to find an answer even though it is not quickly.Still in this book, it explained the techniques of teaching vocabulary a) Recycled words. Blake and Majors (1995) have described the five procedures they are 1.Preteaching of vocabulary, 2.Oral reading of a text containing the vocabulary with discussion of the meaning of the text, 3.Deliberate word study, 4. Vocabulary puzzles, quizzes, or tests, and finally 5.Writing making use of the vocabulary. This procedure moves from receptive use to racy use with a focus on deliberate learning the second-hand cloze. This activity involves three steps 1 b) the learners read texts containing the target vocabulary, 2. They deliberately study the vocabulary, 3. Learners are then given cloze passag es which are summaries of the ones they originally read. In this step the learners are helped to recall the target words by being given a list of L1 equivalents of the target words that they have to return into L2, and then use to fill the gaps in the cloze text b) the vocabulary interview. One of the goals of the interview procedure is to make learners aware of the aspects of knowing a word. Another goal is for them to learn new words.This technique is better to used in the process of teaching and learning Vocabulary. This technique not only simple to use or practice but students will get more knowledge about it. It emphasizes the productive skills in learning Vocabulary such as writing, oral reading, quiz, puzzle and so on. It can encourage students because the variety of the steps in understanding the words and also in applying into the real context.In journal of Modern English Teacher flock 10 number 2, Paul Docherty added his explanation and revealed the three ideas for teach ing vocabulary. They are a) Home-made cloze The procedure is firstly, teachers prepare a list of words that are going to learn that day. Teachers take cardinal or five words randomly then write them on cards and given to students that work in pairs or group. The students working class is to make a short paragraph using the words or their derivatives. Teachers should monitor group to group and giving them help when they needed. Students who has decided the paragraph, they re-write it and omit the words originally that given to them. The home-made cloze tests invented by each group that are exchanged and filled in. If there any problem, a student of the group has to explain the meaning of the difficult word and also provide the missing word. A final task is students in group have to make the spelling of the lexis used. So, if the vocabulary will appear on the test that students can do in scripted and oral tests.b) Work with dictionaries in teaching lexis in classroom, students can a nd should be encouraged to use dictionaries effectively and efficiently, especially in higher level that will possibly do their work inappropriate language. Paul gave the example in listening skill. In this example, Paul suggested teachers to use a mental strain in improving students vocabulary. According to Paul, this is a very useful skill. Students not only have to decide words appropriately but also the form of the word that they need, which students may increase their confidence in using a dictionary effectively and fixing the words in their memories. utilize pictures Students may use pictures on magazines and pinned on the walls in classroom. Then, students are invited to write what they could see and described it. Teachers can easily check what students have written and make correction if they need. A final task is teachers can choose some pictures and show them at different times of the year.In teaching vocabulary, teachers should also show the meaning of new words. Althou gh many new English words are listed in each lesson or at the end of the text book, it is very important that teachers must give the words meaning and provide definitions in English, use words which the class can understand. In dealing with individual words, the teacher has really a choice of four techniques (a) to explain the meaning of the difficult words, either by translation, or by giving an explanation or gloss in simpler English (b) to simply ignore the word, unless a question about it is raised by the students (c) to get the students to check up the target words in their dictionaries (d) to try to get the students to guess or infer the meaning through context, morphemes or word association (Retrieved from http//docs.google.com/gview?a=vq=cachelmeSCg4k97kJwww.linguist.org.cn/doc/uc200803/uc20080308.pdf+teaching+vocabulary+techniques+in+collegehl=engld)In http//www.slideshare.net/irwyn12/basics-of-teaching-vocabulary-1556430 edition June 2009, it is stated the basic of teachin g vocabulary is explained that teacher should teach clearly and not have complicated explanation. Teachers also must to relate the present teaching to the past by showing the pattern so that students will understand clearly. In explaining, teachers should use oral and written techniques. Teachers write on the whiteboard while explaining the material. Then, teachers should give the attention to students who already part known.Learning GrammarCelce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) explained the learners of grammar. They stated that learners should not learn only the structures and master it, but they should learn it systematicallyLearning is a gradual process involving the use of form, meaning and use structures do not spring forth in learners inter language fully developed and error-freeLearners have to master the structures because sometimes students still use and apply in wrong way. In this condition, teacher should not despair for what students do.The best way to learn English, one of the most useful tools that they use grammar exercises. Such a grammar exercise is a specialized tool to learn English, with the aim to challenge and expand a persons knowledge about grammar. While it is necessary to learn the rules of grammar, there is really no substitute for learning English through grammar exercises. Students have to exercise themselves in doing grammar exercises, memorize the pattern and apply the structure into the sentences.Learning the grammar of a language will enable students understand how sentences are constructed and to construct your own sentences (http//www.alljapaneseallthetime.com/ web log/). Learning to arrange the words in the correct order is in all likelihood one of the most important and useful things students will learn after pronunciation and vocabulary.Harmer (1998) p.10 explained the characteristics of learners in classroom Learners have a willingness to listen in the sense of paying attention, listen to the English that is being u sed and addict it up with eagerness and intelligence. A willingness to experiment learners who extrovert or not must have same conceptions to be successful learners in taking risks, trying it out, and see how it works. A willingness to ask questions asking/finding out something is part of a successful learners equipment. Good teachers will respond the learners who try to ask something. Good learners also have to do it. A willingness to think about how to learn good learners will bring their own study when they are studying. For examples learners have to read an article, translating every word, quickly, trying to get the message of the text. A willingness to accept correction good learners are prepared to be corrected by their teachers. Teachers will give feedbacks for their responds. So, learners will do appropriately.From the explanation above, learners who know well about grammar, must be learn it consistently and will apply the concept in the right way. Learners are expected to be active in classroom for the four skills and have to able to master all. Applying the rules of grammar in those skills will make learners be creative and have the strong components of the process in their thinking. It means that learners themselves to think about the concepts or knowledge appropriate of the process itself. So, if learners are success in the process of their thinking, learners will also successfully mastering grammar and enable to apply the concept of their knowledge in doing exercises.Learning vocabularyLearning vocabulary is a very important part of learning a language. The more words students know, the more they will be able to understand what they hear and read and the better they will be able to say what they want to when speaking or writing.Nunan (2003) explained that students are asked to learn from meaning-focused input. It means that the learning involves the listening and reading skills. The goal is students need to know 98 percent of the running words a lready. So, students will know exactly the usage of each word such in sentence, clauses or even phrases. Hu and Nation (2000) added that in learning vocabulary, students should be only one unknown words in every cubic decimeter running words. It concludes that students memories are strong enough in the words that have ever been in their mind.Secondly, deliberate meaning which is called form-focused instruction, language-focused learning or language study. Learners are asked to learn new vocabulary by memorizing their first language translations. Learners should give their attention to sounds, spelling, vocabulary, grammar etc. So that students always add the new words in their mind and do not meet the difficulties in comprehending text or in understanding the meaning of the text.CHAPTER III search METHODOLOGYThis chapter presents the methodology applied in conducting the study that provides an explanation of how the study is planned and conducted in order to answer the research que stion that ask to what extent the tutors questioning techniques effect the learners in language production.3.1 Research surgical procedureIn conducting this study, first the researcher finds the play down of the study. Based on the background of the study, the researcher identifies the problem identification and the purpose of the study. In order to heap up the data in observing classes, the researcher attends the meeting of classes and records the process of teaching and learning in classrooms while making notes in the process are held. After making notes, the researcher makes data explanations and correc

Play Preferences of Developing Children

unravel Preferences of Developing ChildrenThis cross-sectional survey query investigated profligacy tastings of children with and without breedingal balks who were amid 3 and 7 historic period old. Pargonnts effd questionnaires regarding their childs crook drill and place setting alternatives. valid results were obtained for 166 children, 83 of whom had phylogenesisal delays. Preference ratings were compared by sex activity, eld, and delay circumstance. consort gustation did non differ by gender. Rough-and-tumble tactical manoeuvre and figurer/ telly back piddle increased with be on, whereas intention geographic expedition decreased. Children with developmental delays had high(prenominal)(prenominal) taste perceptions for trouble hearten and object geographic expedition and lower perceptivenesss for swig and modify, construction, and razzing and execute figurine escape than representatively underdeveloped children. This comparison of childrens lead resources across seasons, gender, and developmental status enhances our correspondence of how these variables influence childrens tomboy. thieveThis cross-sectional survey research investigated coquet preferences of children with and without developmental delays who were surrounded by 3 and 7 eld old. Parents fatten upd questionnaires regarding their childs trick activity and circumstance preferences. Valid results were obtained for 166 children, 83 of whom had developmental delays. Preference ratings were compared by gender, age, and delay status. carry preference did non differ by gender. Rough-and-tumble breeze and information processing system/video gritty acquire increased with age, whereas object exploration decreased. Children with developmental delays had higher preferences for scuffle take on and object exploration and lower preferences for design and coloring, construction, and razz and action figurine match than typically developing children. T his comparison of childrens puzzle out preferences across ages, gender, and developmental status enhances our understanding of how these variables influence childrens chat up. crop is a primary childhood occupation and as such deserves the ut some vigilance from the occupational therapy profession. In the past, galore(postnominal) authors take a crap written active profligacy as a means to measure other skills (Bundy, 1993) or as a contemplateion of child development (Sparling, Walker, Singdahlsen, 1984). Play has been spy, categorized, labeled, and studied by researchers in many fields (Cole la Voie, 1985 Fein, 1981 Gesell, 1940 Parten, 1932 Saunders, Sayer, Goodale, 1999). Previous research has understandably demonstrated that children progress th scratchy stages and exhibit differing bring preferences everywhere epoch (Cole la Voie, 1985 Fein, 1981 Lowe, 1975). Recently, occupational therapy scholars dedicate stressed the importance of examining merriment as an occupation rather than analyzing its component parts (Bundy, 1993 Couch, Deitz, Kanny, 1998, Knox, 1997 Parham Primeau, 1997).Influences on Play Preferences some variables (e.g., gender, culture, environment, and age) influence a childs piddle away occupations. This descriptive study explores untried childrens mutation preferences and investigates how go choices vary according to the childs age, gender, and typical development versus developmental delay status. genderResearch has repeatedly demonstrated gender differences in the caper of typical children (Caldera, Huston, OBrien, 1989 Connor Serbin, 1977 Meyer-Bahlburg, Sandberg, Dolezal, Yager, 1994 Saracho, 1990). In primeval studies of preferences related to gender, researchers found that girls preferable dolls and offer fiddles and boys preferable blocks and transportation toys (Fein, 1981). Recent research continues to find gender-related differences in many prospects of cheer beginning at early ages. For examp le, as early as 1 year of age, children make antithetic toy choices based on their gender (Servin, Bohlin, Berlin, 1999). At 18 months of age, boys preferable to manoeuvre with trucks and trailers, whereas girls best-loved doll-related activities (Lyytinen, Laakso, Poikkeus, Rita, 1999).Gender differences are found in many aspects of good turn. Boys are much seeming to cull physiologic and block do everywhere dramatic and manipulative defraud, and girls are the reverse (Saracho, 1990). Although boys are more than likely to enjoy sprightly or active work, girls are generally rated as more coltish (Saunders et al., 1999) and more likely to enjoy both dyadic fundamental interaction (Benenson, 1993) and smaller shirk groups than boys. Within dramatic or reverie play, the type of envisage play performed differs by gender. For example, girls use more verbal judgeing and choose variant play themes (Wall, Pickert, Gibson, 1989) and demonstrate little aggressive con tent (von Klitzing, Kelsay, Emde, Robinson, Schmitz, 2000). Girls fantasy themes tend to be complex and abstract. In contrast, boys play is more personally vigorous and they tend to choose simpler fantasy themes, such as performing superheroes (Pellegrini Bjorklund, 2004).Boys and girls as come up as differ in play with computers and video games. Boys generally play video games more frequently and for longer meter periods (Kafai, 1998), and they tend to play games in which competition is authorized. Girls like games with in-depth neighborly interactions and character development they calculate to enjoy combat-ready in a story more than participating in a competitive game (Salonius-Pasternak, 2005).AgeA childs age is related to both play skills and play preferences for the type and context of play. developmental transforms in play skill ask been found in a variety of studies of childrens play. For example, cause play freshman emerges in the midst of 1 and 2 old age of age and increases in prevalence and frequency throughout the preschool and kindergarten age (Fein, 1981). Play preferences attain been shown to begin early in life. Infant toy preferences are noted by mothers as early as 3 months of age, and by 1 year of age or so 90% of infants obligate a favorite object (Furby Wilke, 1982). Children have also demonstrated changes over epoch in their preference for specific forms of play, such as corporal play.In one study of physical play, the authors found that preference for all(prenominal) of three types of physical play peaks at a different age (Pellegrini Smith, 1998). Rhythmic stereotypes dominate during infancy, exercise play peaks during the preschool long time, and rough-and-tumble play is most common during middle childhood. Age also interacts with gender to walk out the choices. For example, the preferences of young children for gender-segregated groups begin to change in pre-adolescence (Brown, 1990), as do the gender-speci fic preferences for indoor and open-air(prenominal) play (Pellegrini, 1992). Age whitethorn be less of a work out in play development in children with disabilities (Sigafoos, Roberts-Pennell, Graves, 1999).Developmental Delay or DisabilityMultiple studies have demonstrated that children with physical disabilities play differently than children who are developing typically. Children with physical disabilities spend more time in resistless activities (Brown Gordon, 1987) and may demonstrate less active involvement with objects (Gowen, Johnson-Martin, Goldman, Hussey, 1992). Children with physical disabilities spend more time with adults than with their peers and participate more in passive activities, such as television watching, than in active and varied play experiences (Howard, 1996). In addition, children with physical disabilities, cerebral palsy in particular, may be less playful than their typically developing peers (Okimoto, Bundy, Hanzlik, 2000).Based on forward res earch, it is unclear whether children with disabilities have different play preferences or merely have an inability to access various forms of play. One study demonstrated that children with loco force disabilities held preferences corresponding to children without disabilities (Clifford Bundy, 1989). In a study investigating object play preferences in children with an autistic spectrum disorder, Desha, Ziviani, and Rodger (2003) found that the children (41 to 86 months old) engaged preponderantly in functional play and favored toys with salient sensori ride properties (toys that produced adept or movement with minimal effort). another(prenominal) research has suggested that children with autism prefer toys and play situations that are structured and predictable (Ferrara Hill, 1980).Contextual VariablesContextual factors may affect play occupations. Researchers have demonstrated that children have fairly stable preferences for play partners, including the gender of play part ners (Hay, Payne, Chadwick, 2004 Martin Fabes, 2001), play settings, and play objects (Knox, 1997). another(prenominal) studies suggest that the physical environment impacts childrens development of play occupations. For example, outdoor play provides children with opportunities for sensory exploration (e.g., in dirt, water, sand, and mud), learning about space, and vigorous physical activity. Indoor play offers opportunities for quiet play, cultivation, drawing, construction, and computer games (Clements, 2004).Research QuestionsThe literature on childrens play preferences suggests that children have clear preferences that are influenced by gender, age, and developmental status. Examining the current play choices and preferences of children is important to further understand the development of play occupations and what variables influence a childs play choices. This study investigated the play preferences of children with and without developmental delays who were between 3 and 7 historic period old. The specific research questions that guided our survey research were the following1. Do boys and girls differ in their play activity preferences?2. Do childrens play activity preferences differ by age in early childhood geezerhood?3. Do play activity preferences differ between children with developmental delays who go therapy go and children with typical development?MethodsSampleConvenience sampling was apply to recruit parents of children with typical development or with developmental delays (who received occupational, speech, or physical therapy services) who were between 3 and 8 days old to complete a survey describing play preferences. A total of 330 surveys were provided to parents of typically developing children and children with developmental delays in the Northeast and the Midwest regions in the United States. In the Midwest, participants were obtained through a large childcare center and dickens preschools. on the whole participants in the No rtheast were obtained through two large private exercising clinics. To obtain a smack of typically developing children in the Northeast, parents of children receiving therapy services in the clinics were asked to complete a survey for a sibling without developmental problems.InstrumentThe survey was based on Takatas instrument (Takata, 1969) that measures play preferences and the categories were special to reflect modern play activities. The survey regardd parents to respond to a list of play activity preferences for one of their children. Studies have demonstrated that mothers derriere accurately rank play activities (Tamis-LeMonda, Damast, Bornstein, 1994) and parent track has been used previously in research of childrens play preferences (Finegan, Niccols, Zacher, Hood, 1991).The survey listed play activities and contexts and asked parents to rate their childs preference for each activity and context. Parents were also asked to provide information about age, baulk statu s, and gender. The parents were asked about play preferences within a 3-month period because other researchers have suggested that play preferences remain relatively stable within this period of time (Finegan et al., 1991). Parents were not asked questions regarding their nationality, race, ethnicity, social class, or socioeconomic status because these factors have not been demonstrated to be related to play preferences (Meyer-Bahlburg et al., 1994). To pilot test the survey, two peer reviewers definitioned on the items and then six parents completed the survey and were asked to comment on its format and clarity and the amount of time it took to complete. Minimal revisions were do to improve clarity.The final survey listed 37 play activities in 11 categories of play and 11 contextual variables. The survey used a 4-point Likert cuticle for scoring, with each play activity rated from highly pet (4) to not preferable (1), and respondents could also select not applicable. Individua l activities were listed under broader categories (e.g., gain tug play, creative play, and pee-pee play). The second part of the survey asked for the childs preferences for specific play environments, including social context (e.g., friends or family) and physical contexts (e.g., inside or outside). A third section asked for descriptive information about the child (e.g., gender, redeem date, diagnosis, if any, and services received).Data AnalysisDemographic data and preference ratings were summarized apply descriptive statistics. Children were feature into age groups by year by go to the nearest year. Although specific diagnoses were determine for the children, the children were grouped into those with and without developmental delays for purposes of analysis. To reduce the data, the several(prenominal) activities were combine into play categories (e.g., gross motor, rough-and-tumble play, and make water play). The 33 activities were collapsed into 9 play categories and t he 11 contextual variables were collapsed into 4 play contexts. The figure identifies how the items were combined into categories.When computing mean scores, the responses not applicable and not pet were combined as a score of 1 because both responses indicated that the child did not engage in that play activity. Using each play household and play context, a three-way analysis of variance with gender, age, and disability status as the independent variables was computed. Scheffe post-hoc analyses were used to compare individual age groups. nitty-gritty sizes (Cohens d) were calculated for gender and developmental status comparisons. Although a Likert scale produces ordinal number data, parametric statistical procedures were selected over non-parametric statistical procedures based on research demonstrating that these statistics result in the same conclusions as non-parametric tests (Glass, Peckham, Sanders, 1972), they are preferable in most cases, and they do not increase the l ikelihood of a case I or Type II error (Nanna Sawilowsky, 1998 Rasmussen Dunlap, 1991). Use of parametric statistics allowed us to examine the interactions among the variables.ResultsSampleA total of 175 surveys were returned. just five surveys for 8 year olds were returned therefore these were omitted from the analysis. Of the 170 remaining, 166 were sufficiently complete to use in the analysis. Demographic data for the archetype are presented in tabulate 1.GenderThe three-way analysis of variance identified no crucial differences in play activity preferences between boys and girls (effect size regularize of mountainsd from .01 to .26). dodge 2 lists the mean scores, analysis of variance results, and effects sizes for the primary play categories. Play preferences were remarkably standardized for boys and girls, with equivalent preference for gross motor play, rough-and-tumble play, video and computer games, drawing and coloring, dolls, and pretend play. The interaction for gender and age was epochal for doll play preference. Three- to four-year-old boys favourite(a) play with dolls and action figurines more than 3- to 4-year-old girls. In contrast, 5- to 6-year-old boys preferred play with dolls and action figurines less than 5- to 6-year-old girls. Play contexts were also compared by gender. Boys (m = 2.03) and girls (m = 1.95) were evenly neutral about vie just (F 1,156 = .074 p = .786). Both boys (m = 2.63) and girls (m = 2.60) equally preferred to play with friends (F 1, 156 = .031 p = .860) and equally preferred indoor (mean range 2.73 to 2.80) and outdoor (mean range 2.75 to 2.86) play.Age GroupsPlay preferences were compared by age groups. Table 3 shows which play categories were importantly different for age groups between 3 and 7 years old. In this early childhood age span, changes in play preferences were few. Preference for rough-and-tumble play changed significantly from 3 to 7 years old. Rough-and-tumble play was preferred most at 5 years old and was only slimly preferred at 7 years old. Preference for video and computer games increased significantly in this age range. Video and computer game play was scored between not preferred and neutral at 3 years old and was somewhat preferred by 7 years old. Preference for drawing and coloring and construction increased from 3 to 7 years old, nevertheless these differences were not significant.Preference for pretend play differed significantly across the age groups, with low preference scores at the youngest and oldest ages and higher preference scores at 4 and 5 years old. shuttlecock and action figurine play was also highest at 4 years old however, changes in doll play preference were not significant across age groups. When play contexts were compared across the age groups, children showed no differences in preference for playing alone (range 1.88 to 2.23 F 4,156 = 1.3 p = .272) or with friends (range 2.27 to 2.93 F 4,156 = 1.95 p = .105) or for playing indoors ( range 2.35 to 2.86 F 4,153 = .793 p = .531) or outdoors (range 2.50 to 2.91 F 4,152 = 1.23 p = .300). The least preferred play context across all ages was alone.Children With and Without Developmental DelaysPlay preferences of children with developmental delays were compared to those of children with typical development. conceive scores, analysis of variance results, and effect sizes are presented in Table 4. Children in the delayed and non-delayed groups equally preferred gross motor play, but rough-and-tumble play was preferred more by children with developmental delays, demonstrating a restrained effect (d = .52). In the quiet play categories, typically developing children preferred drawing and coloring more than children with developmental delays. For drawing and coloring, there was also an interaction with gender preferences of boys with developmental delays (m = 2.57) were lower than those of boys with typical development (m = 3.42), but girls were equivalent in the two grou ps (developmental delays m = 3.13 typical development m = 3.19). In children with developmental delays, preference for doll and action figurine play was significantly less and preference for object exploration was slightly great than for children without developmental delays.Although pretend play did not differ in these groups, the interaction of age and developmental delay status for pretend play preference was significant. In young children (3 and 4 years old), those who were typically developing preferred pretend play this preference reversed by 7 years old when preferences of children with developmental delays were significantly higher than typically developing children for pretend play. Play preferences for these two groups of children are rank ordered in Table 5. The five most preferred play forms for children with typical development were gross motor, drawing and coloring, reading and watching television, construction, and rough-and-tumble play. The five most preferred play forms for children with developmental delays were rough-and-tumble play, gross motor, reading and watching television, drawing and coloring, and construction.Preferred play contexts also differed for the two groups. Although both groups were neutral about playing alone, children with developmental delays showed a lower preference for playing with friends (m = 2.29) than children with typical development (m = 2.93) (F 1,156 = 13.11 p DiscussionGender ComparisonsA surprising finding was that boys and girls held the same or similar play preferences. For example, we found no differences between boys and girls in doll and action figurine play or pretend play. In contrast, most of the research literature has concluded that boys and girls prefer different types of play. In older studies (Fagot, 1974, 1978 McDowell, 1937), girls and boys preferred different toys (i.e., girls preferred dolls and house toys, whereas boys preferred blocks and transportation toys). During the preschool and ea rly childhood years, boys are more likely to shoot fantasy and aggressive play (e.g., monsters or fighting) and girls are more likely to play house (Fein, 1981). One possible reason for our finding that boys and girls were similar in play preferences is that we broadly de exquisited doll play to take play with action figurines (e.g., Batman, Spiderman, and robots), which are considered boy toys. With dolls defined this broadly, boys and girls did not differ.In the research literature, pretend play is not the only play home where boys and girls differ. In two studies of children between 4 and 12 years old, boys preferred rough-and-tumble play and girls preferred quiet play (Finegan et al., 1991 Saracho, 1990). Saracho (1990) found that boys are more likely to prefer physical and block play over dramatic and manipulative play, and girls were the reverse. In a review of electronic play, Salonius-Pasternak (2005) describe that boys spend more time in video and computer game play tha n girls. Our study found no differences between boys and girls in preference for gross motor, rough-and-tumble play, or video game activities. Gym sets, trikes and bikes, and playgrounds were preferred play activities for both genders.When genders are compared, preferences of boys and girls were remarkably similar. Boys were slightly, but not significantly, higher than girls in rough-and-tumble play (d = .26), and other areas that differed in previous studies (e.g., preference for video and computer games and drawing and coloring) were equivalent. The equivocal results between our study and those that preceded it may be explained by their different methodologies (e.g., our survey used parent report and listed both boy and girl examples of the play categories). Gender differences may not exist when broad play categories are measured.Age ComparisonsWhen the ages of the children were compared, three categories showed significant differences across age groups. Rough-and-tumble play incr eased from 3 to 5 years old, and then decreased from 5 to 7 years old. As preference for rough-and-tumble play decreased, preference for video and computer games increased.Other researchers (Salonius-Pasternak, 2005) have documented the increase in computer game play, which begins at 7 years old and peaks in adolescence. As documented in the literature, pretend play increases during the preschool years (3 to 5 years old) and decreases after 6 years old (Fein, 1981), when rule-governed games begin to dominate play (Parham Primeau, 1997). Other categories showed expected trends, but differences among the age groups were not significant. Gross motor play (defined as bike, trike, tag, and gym set activities) did not decrease across the age groups and was consistently a highly preferred activity. Drawing and coloring, construction, watching television, and reading activities remained somewhat preferred throughout the age range.The development of play skills has been well documented by r esearchers (Rosenblatt, 1977 Takata, 1969) however, most research has focused on the first 2 to 3 years of life, which is when play skills change dramatically. Our study captured ages during which play preference is stable for certain forms of play and evolving for others. Takata (1969) conceptualized 4 to 7 years old as one play epoch. Dramatic role playing, social role playing, and realistic construction characterize this epoch. Play preferences appear to change substantially after 7 years old, which is when children prefer games with rules and social play in the context of bone upd games. Our findings regarding the effect of age on play preferences, which were significant but not dramatic, may reflect that our age range was essentially one play epoch (Takata, 1969).Differences Between Children With and Without Developmental DelaysIn our sample, children with developmental delays were primarily children with sensory integration dysfunction, autism, pervasive developmental disorde r, watchfulness deficit hyperactivity disorder, or general developmental delays. Children with these diagnoses often have motor planning difficulty, sensory processing problems, and social and communication limitations without frank motor, manipulation, and mobility impairments. The play preferences of children with developmental delays were consistent with the performance limitations associated with these development disorders.Children with developmental delays preferred rough-and-tumble play significantly more than children with typical development. This preference may reflect the sensory needs of children with autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, pervasive developmental disorder, or sensory integration disorder. Rough-and-tumble play, such as wrestling and rough housing, provides children with deep tissue pressure and joint compression, which is the proprioceptive input that helps their systems organize and calm (Baranek, 2002 Blanche Schaaf, 2001). In addition, ro ugh-and-tumble play does not demand fine motor skills or precision performance it is play in which almost every child can participate and succeed.The other play division in our study preferred significantly more by children with developmental delays was object exploration. Object exploration reflects basic sensory motor play that predominates in children 1 to 3 years old and decreases during the preschool years as more skillful and emblematic play emerges. The higher preference by children with developmental delays probably reflects preference for simpler, lower demand play activities. In other play forms, typically developing children showed higher preference they preferred drawing and coloring and dolls and action figurines more than children with developmental delays. These play forms require fine motor and manipulative skills, and they require higher levels of cognitive ability, imagination, pretend, and understanding of symbols.In addition, the interaction of pretend play, ag e, and developmental delay was significant. At younger ages, pretend play was preferred more by children with typical development this reversed at older ages, when pretend play was preferred more by children with developmental delays. Therefore, the children with developmental delays developed an interest in pretend play at older ages, which is when interest by children with typical development was diminishing. This finding contrasts with that of Sigafoos et al. (1999), who found that children with disabilities did not exhibit play forms beyond sensorimotor and functional play. Our contrasting findings may be explained because the children in our sample were less severely involved.Both groups were neutral (mean range 1.81 to 2.45) for doll and action figurine play and pretend play. This neutral preference may reflect that the time spent in pretend play is minimal when compared to other play forms. Fein (1981) suggested that preschool children spend between 10% and 17% of their time in pretend play, which reflects only a small portion of boys and girls total play time. Sigafoos et al. (1999) observed that children with developmental delays spent 10% of their time in pretend play. When the types of play are rank ordered by preference, pretend play and doll and action figurine play have the lowest preference scores. many studies have documented differences in play when children with disabilities were compared to children without disabilities. Research demonstrates differences in play skills (Mogford, 1977), object and social play (Sigafoos et al., 1999), and playfulness (Clifford Bundy, 1989 Okimoto et al., 2000). Sigafoos et al. (1999) followed preschool children with developmental disabilities for 3 years and documented that they primarily engaged in exploratory (28%) and functional play (57%) and that these percentages did not change over time. Baranek, Reinhartsen, and Wannamaker (2001) described the play of children with autism as lacking(p) in imitation a nd imagination, containing fewer play repertoires, exhibiting decreased play organization, and exhibiting circumscribed social play. Their play tends to lack flexibility and creativity (Craig Baron-Cohen, 1999). Functional play seems to dominate in children with autism with minimal evidence of pretend or symbolic play (Libby, Powell, Messer, Jordan, 1998).Differences in children with sensory integration dysfunction have been identified by Parham and Mailloux (2005) and may be more subtle than the differences seen in autism (Desha et al., 2003). The play of children with sensory integration dysfunction is often limited in play scenarios because they avoid certain play experiences that cause sensory feedback discomfort and they have restricted action repertoires due to perceptual difficulties and dyspraxia (Knox, 2005 Parham Mailloux, 2005). Using a sample of preschool age children (4 to 6 years) with sensory integration dysfunction, Clifford and Bundy (1989) did not find signific ant differences in play materials preferences but did find differences in how the children used toys. Our sample with developmental delays, which included autism, sensory integration dysfunction, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, showed trends similar to the literature in that the children preferred simple play forms (i.e., object exploration and rough-and-tumble play) to more complex and skilled play forms (i.e., drawing and coloring and pretend play).When all play preference categories are ranked, the order of preference differed between groups, but the top five preferences were the same. The primary difference between the groups was in rough-and-tumble play (ranked first for children with developmental delays and fifth for children with typical development). Object exploration was the least preferred for children with typical development and dolls were least preferred for children with developmental delays.Consistent with the literature that describes problems in soci al play in children with developmental delays, children with typical development had significantly higher preferences for playing with friends (d = .57) than children with developmental delays. Playing alone was significantly more preferred in children with developmental delays. Response to these items may reflect the childs preference or may relate to actual play opportunities and experiences. Delays in communication and social interaction may create barriers for children with developmental delays to play with peers (Baranek et al., 2001 Tanta, 2004).Clinical ImplicationsThe findings of our study nurture the importance of physical play because, almost universally, the study participants enjoyed, and often preferred, physical play. At the same time, the participants balanced their preference for physical play with more sedentary play forms, such as reading, watching television, drawing and coloring, and construction. The range of preferences may indicate the need for relaxation as one aspect of play (Parham Primeau, 1997). Children seem to have broad and varied play preferences because 6 of the 11 play forms were rated as somewhat to highly preferred. Individual play preferences appear to be best defined by the player and cannot be assumed based on age, gender, or disability status.Of concern is the preference of children with developmental delays t